Survey Questionnaire On Social Networking - 946 Words

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Culture Is The Most Visible Face Of A Society - 937 Words

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Input/Output Organization Free Essays

string(88) " and reads and writes to those addresses are interpreted as commands to the I/O device\." INPUT/OUTPUT ORGANIZATION †¢ Accessing I/O Devices †¢ I/O interface †¢ Input/output mechanism Memory-mapped I/O y pp / Programmed I/O Interrupts Direct Memory Access †¢ Buses Synchronous Bus Asynchronous Bus I/O in CO and O/S †¢ †¢ †¢ Programmed I/O Interrupts DMA (Direct memory Access) A bus is a shared communication link, which uses one , set of wires to connect multiple subsystems. The two major advantages of the bus organization are versatility and low cost. Accessing I/O Devices Most modern computers use single bus arrangement for connecting I/O devices to CPU Memory †¢ The bus enables all the devices connected to it to exchange information †¢ Bus consists of 3 set of lines : Address, Data, Control †¢ Processor places a particular address (unique for an I/O Dev. We will write a custom essay sample on Input/Output Organization or any similar topic only for you Order Now ) on address lines †¢ Device which recognizes this address responds to the commands issued on the Control lines †¢ Processor requests for either Read / Write †¢ The data will be placed on Data lines Hardware to connect I/O devices to b t bus Interface Circuit – Address Decoder – Control Circuits – Data registers – Status registers †¢ The Registers in I/O Interface – buffer and control †¢ Flags in Status Registers like SIN, SOUT Registers, SIN †¢ Data Registers, like Data-IN, Data-OUT I/O interface for an input device Memory Address Processor Data Control Address Add Decoders Control C t l circuits Data d t t D t and status registers I/O /O Interface Input device (s) p ( ) Input Output mechanism h i †¢ Memory mapped I/O †¢ Programmed I/O †¢ Interrupts †¢ DMA (Direct memory Access) A bus generally contains a set of control lines and a set of data lines. The control lines are used to signal requests and acknowledgments, and to indicate what type of information is on the data lines. The control lines are used to indicate what the bus contains and to implement the bus protocol. The data lines of the bus carry information between the source and the destination. This information may consist of data, complex commands, or addresses. Buses are traditionally classified as processor-memory di i ll l ifi d buses or I/O buses or special purposed buses (Graphics, etc. ). Processor memory buses are short, generally high speed, and matched to the memory system so as to maximize memoryprocessor bandwidth. I/O b buses, b contrast, can be lengthy, can have many by t t b l th h types of devices connected to them, and often have a wide range in the data bandwidth of the devices connected to them. I/O buses do not typically interface directly to the memory but use either a processor-memory or a backplane bus to connect to memory. The major disadvantage of a bus is that it creates a communication bottleneck possibly limiting the maximum I/O bottleneck, throughput. When I/O must pass through a single bus, the bus bandwidth of that bus limits the maximum I/O throughput. Reason why b R h bus d i design is so difficult : i diffi lt – the maximum bus speed is largely limited by physical factors: the length of the bus and the number of devices. These physical limits prevent us from running the bus arbitrarily fast. – In addition, the need to support a range of devices with widely varying latencies and data transfer rates also makes bus design challenging. – it becomes difficult to run many parallel wires at high speed due to clock skew and reflection reflection. The two basic schemes for communication on the bus are synchronous and asynchronous. If a bus is synchronous (e. g. Processor-memory), it includes a clock in the control lines and a fixed protocol for communicating that is relative to the clock. g This type of protocol can be implemented easily in a small finite state machine. Because the protocol is predetermined and involves little logic, the bus can run very fast and the interface logic will be small. Synchronous buses have two major disadvantages: – First, every device on the bus must run at the same clock rate. Second, because of clock skew problems, synchronous buses cannot be long if they are fast. An A asynchronous b h bus i not clocked. It can accommodate a is t l k d d t wide variety of devices, and the bus can be lengthened without worrying about clock skew or synchronization problems. To coordinate the transmission of data between sender and receiver, an asynchronous bus uses a handshaking protocol. Three special c ontrol lines required for hand-shaking: ReadReq: Used to indicate a read request for memory. The address is put on the data lines at the same time. DataRdy: Used t i di t th t th d t D t Rd U d to indicate that the data word is now ready on the di d th data lines; asserted by: Output/Memory and Input/I_O Device. Ack: Used to acknowledge the ReadReq or the DataRdy signal of the other party. I/O Dev. Memory Steps after the device signals a request by raising ReadReq and putting the address on the Data lines: 1. When memory sees the ReadReq line, it reads the address from the data bus and raises Ack to indicate it has been seen. 2. As the Ack line is high – I/O releases the ReadReq and data lines. g / q 3. Memory sees that ReadReq is low and drops the Ack line to acknowledge the ReadReq signal (Mem. Reading in progress now). 4. This step starts when the memory has the data ready. It places the data from the read request on the data lines and raises DataRdy. 5. The I/O device sees DataRdy, reads the data from the bus, and signals that it has the data by raising Ack. 6. On the Ack signal, M/M drops DataRdy, and releases the data lines. 7. Finally, the I/O device, seeing DataRdy go low, drops the Ack line, which indicates that the transmission is completed. Memory mapped I/O I/O devices and the memory share the same address space the space, arrangement is called Memory-mapped I/O. In Memory-mapped I/O portions of address space are assigned to I/O devices and reads and writes to those addresses are interpreted as commands to the I/O device. You read "Input/Output Organization" in category "Essay examples" †¢ â€Å"DATAIN† is the address of the input buffer associated with the k eyboard. – Move DATAIN, R0 reads the data from DATAIN and stores them into processor register R0; – Move R0, DATAOUT sends the contents of register R0 to location DATAOUT g Option of special I/O address space or incorporate as a part of memory address space (address bus is same always). When the processor places the address and data on the memory bus, the memory system ignores the operation because the address indicates a portion of the memory space used for I/O. The device controller, however, sees the operation, records the data, and transmits it to the device as a command. User programs are p p g prevented from issuing I/O g / operations directly because the OS does not provide access to the address space assigned to the I/O devices and thus the addresses are protected by the address translation. Memory mapped I/O can also be used to transmit data by writing or reading to select addresses. The device uses the address to determine the type of command, and the data may be provided by a write or obtained by a read. A program request usually requires several separate I/O operations. Furthermore, the processor may have to interrogate the status of the device between individual commands to determine whether the command completed successfully. DATAIN DATAOUT STATUS CONTROL 7 6 5 4 DIRQ KIRQ DEN KEN SOUT SIN 3 2 1 0 I/O operation involving keyboard and display devices Registers: DATAIN, DATAOUT, STATUS, CONTROL Flags: SIN, SOUT – Provides status information for keyboard nd display unit KIRQ, DIRQ – Keyboard, Display Interrupt request bits DEN, KEN –Keyboard, Display Enable bits Programmed I/O †¢ CPU has direct control over I/O – S Sensing status i t t – Read/write commands – Transferring data †¢ CPU waits for I/O module to complete operation †¢ Wastes CPU time In this case, use dedicated I/O instructions in the processor . These I/O instructions can specify both the device number and the command word (or the location of the command word in memory). The processor communicates the device address via a set of wires normally included as part of the I/O bus. The actual command can be transmitted over the data lines in the bus. bus (example – Intel IA-32) IA-32). By making the I/O instructions illegal to execute when not in kernel or supervisor mode user programs can be mode, prevented from accessing the devices directly. The process of periodically checking status bits to see if it is time for the next I/O operation, is called polling. Polling is the simplest way for an I/O device to communicate with the processor processor. The I/O device simply puts the information in a Status register, register and the processor must come and get the information. The processor is totally in control and does all the work. A ISA program to read one line from the keyboard, store it in memory buffer and echo it back to the display buffer, The disadvantage of polling is that it can waste a lot of processor time because processors are so much faster than I/O devices devices. The processor may read the Status register many times, only to find that the device has not yet completed a comparatively slow I/O operation, or that the mouse has not budged since the last time it was polled. When the device completes an operation, we must still read the status to determine whether it (I/O) was successful. Overhead in a polling interface lead to the invention of interrupts to notify the processor when an I/O device requires attention from the processor. Interrupt-driven I/O, Interrupt driven I/O employs I/O interrupts to indicate to the processor that an I/O device needs attention. When a device wants to notify the processor that it has completed some operation or needs attention, it causes the processor to be interrupted. Interrupts I/O INTERRUPT Processor †¢ When I/O Device is ready, it sends the INTERRUPT signal to processor via a dedicated controller line †¢ Using interrupt we are ideally eliminating WAIT period †¢ In response to the interrupt, the processor executes the Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) †¢ All the registers flags program counter values are saved registers, flags, by the processor before running ISR †¢ The time required to save status restore contribute to execution overhead ? â€Å"Interrupt Latency† p y nterrupt-acknowledge signal – I/O device interface p y accomplishes this by execution of an instruction in the interrupt-service routine (ISR) that accesses a status or data register in the device interface; implicitly informs the device that its interrupt request has been recognized. IRQ signal is then removed by device. ISR is a sub-routine – may belong to a different user than the one being executed and then halted. The condition cod e flags and the contents of any registers used by both the interrupted program and the interrupt-service interrupt service routine are saved and restored restored. The concept of interrupts is used in operating systems and i many control applications, where processing of d in l li i h i f certain routines must be accurately timed relative to external events (e. g. real-time processing). Interrupt Hardware p Pull up Pull-up resister INTR = INTR1 +†¦.. +INTR n INTR An equivalent circuit for an open drain bus used to implement a open-drain common interrupt-request line Interrupt Hardware Supply pp y R INTR Processor Pull-up resister INTR 1 INTR 2 INTR 3 INTR = INTR1 +†¦.. +INTR n GND INTR Enabling and Disabling Interrupts Device activates interrupt signal line and waits with this signal activated until processors attends †¢ The interrupt signal line is active during execution of ISR and till the device caused interrupt is serviced †¢ Necessary to ensure that the active signal does not lead to successive interruptions (level-triggered input) causing (level triggered the system to fall in infinite loop. †¢ What if the same d i h h device i interrupts again, within an ISR ? i i hi †¢ Three methods of Controlling Interrupts (single device) – Ignoring interrupt – Disabling interrupts – Special Interrupt request line Ignoring Interrupts – Processor hardware ignores the interrupt request line until the execution of the first instruction of the ISR completed – Using an interrupt disable instruction after the first instruction of the ISR – no further interrupts – A return from interrupt instruction is completed before further interruptions can occur †¢ Disabling Interrupts – Processor automatically disables interrupts before starting the execution of the ISR – The processor saves the contents of PC and PS (status register) before performing interrupt disabling. The interrupt-enable is set to 0 – no further interrupts allowed – When return from interrupt instruction is executed the contents of the PS are restored from the st ack, and the interrupt enable is set to 1 †¢ Special Interrupt line p p – Special interrupt request line for which the interrupt handling circuit responds only t th l di h dli i it d l to the leading edge of d f the signal – Edge –triggered g gg – Processor receives only one request regardless of how long the line is activated – N separate i t No t interrupt di bli t disabling i t instructions ti The sequence of events involved in handling an interrupt request from a single device. Assuming that interrupts are enabled, the following is a typical scenario: 1. 1 The device raises an interrupt request request. 2. The processor interrupts the program currently being executed. t d 3. Interrupts are disabled by changing the control bits in the PS (except in the case of edge-triggered interrupts) interrupts). 4. The device is informed that its request has been recognized, and in response, it deactivates the interrupti d di d ti t th i t t request signal. . The action requested by the interrupt is performed by the interrupt-service routine. 6. Interrupts are enabled and execution of the interrupted program is resumed. Handling Multiple Devices †¢ Multiple devices can initiate interrupts p p †¢ They uses the common interrupt request line y p q †¢ Techniques are q – Polling – Vectored Interrupts p – Interrupt Nesting – Daisy Chaining y g Polli ng Scheme †¢ The IRQ (interrupt request) bit in the status register is set when a device is requesting an interrupt. The Interrupt service routine polls the I/O devices connected to the bus. †¢ The first device encountered with the IRQ bit set is serviced and the subroutine is invoked. †¢ Easy to implement, but too much time spent on checking the IRQ bits of all devices, though some devices may not be requesting service. Vectored Interrupts †¢ Device requesting an interrupt identifies itself directly to the processor †¢ The device sends a special code to the processor over the bus. The code contains the – identification of the device device, – starting address for the ISR, – address of the branch to the ISR †¢ PC finds the ISR address from the code. †¢ To add flexibility for multiple devices – corresponding ISR is executed by the processor using a branch address to the appropriate routine – device specified Interr upt Vector. An interrupt vector is the memory address of an interrupt handler, or an index into an array called an interrupt vector table or dispatch table – a table of interrupt vectors (pointers to routines that handle interrupts). Interrupt vector tables contain the memory addresses of interrupt handlers. When an interrupt is generated, the processor saves its execution state via a context switch, and begins execution of the interrupt handler at the interrupt b i ti f th i t t h dl t th i t t vector. The Interrupt Descriptor Table ( p p (IDT) is specific to the ) p I386 architecture. It tells where the Interrupt Service Routines (ISR) are located. Each interrupt number is reserved for a specific purpose. For example, 16 of the vectors are reserved for the 16 IRQ lines. Q On PCs, the interrupt vector table (IVT or IDT) consists of 256 4-byte pointers – the first 32 (0-31 or 00-1F) of which are reserved f for processor exceptions; the rest f for hardware interrupts, software interrupts. This resides in the first 1 K of addressable memory. Interrupt Nesting †¢ Pre-Emption of low priority Interrupt by another high Pre Emption priority interrupt is known as Interrupt nesting. †¢ Di bli Disabling I t Interrupts d i t during th execution of th ISR the ti f the may not favor devices which need immediate attention. Need a priority of IRQ devices and accepting IRQ from a high priority device. †¢ The priority level of the processor can be changed y y dynamically. †¢ The privileged instruction write in the PS (processor status word) that encodes the processors priority word), priority. Interrupt Nesting (contd. ) Pro ocessor INTR1 Device 1 INTA 1 Device 2 INTRp .. . Device p INTA p Priority arbitration circuit †¢ Organizing I/O devices in a prioritized structure. g g / p †¢ Each of the interrupt-request lines is assigned a different priority level level. †¢ The processor is interrupted only by a high priority device. Daisy Chaining †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ The interrupt request line INTR is common to all the devices The interrupt acknowledgement line INTA is connected to devices in a DAISY CHAIN way INTA propagates serially through the devices Device that is electrically closest to the processor gets high hi h priority i i Low priority device may have a danger of STARVATION INTR P Processor r Device D i 1 INTA Device D i 2 .. Device n D i Daisy Chaining with Priority Group †¢ †¢ Combining Daisy chaining and Interrupt nesting to form p priority group yg p Each group has different priority levels and within each group devices are connected in daisy chain way INTR1 Proc cessor Device 1 Device 1 INTA 1 INTR p . . . . Device D i 1 INTA p Priority arbitration circuit Device D i 1 Arrangement of priority groups Direct Memory Access (DMA) †¢ For I/O transfer, Processor determines the status of I/O devices, by – – Polling Waiting for Interrupt signal †¢ Considerable overhead is incurred in above I/O transfer processing †¢ To transfer large blocks of data at high Speed, between EXTERNAL devices Main Memory, DMA approach is often used †¢ DMA controller allows data transfer directly between I/O device d i and d Memory, M with i h minimal i l intervention i i of f processor. Direct Memory Access (DMA) †¢ DMA controller acts as a Processor, but it is controlled by CPU †¢ To initiate transfer of a block of words, the processor sends the following data to controller – The starting address of the memory block – The word count h d – Control to specify the mode of transfer such as read or write – A control to start the DMA transfer †¢ DMA controller performs the requested I/O operation and sends a interrupt to the processor upon completion 1 Status and Control Starting address Word count In ? ? ? IRQ 30 IE 1 R/W 0 Done DMA interface g g First register stores the starting address Second register stores Word count Third register contains status and control flags Bits and Flags R/W Done IRQ IE 1 READ Data transfer finishes Interrupt request Raise interrupt (enable) after Data Transfer 0 WRITE Processor Main memory Disk/DMA controller DMA controller Printer Keyboard Disk Disk Network Interface Use of DMA Controller in a computer system Memory accesses by the processor and DMA Controller are interwoven †¢ DMA devices have higher priority then processor over BUS control †¢ Cycle Stealing:- DMA Controller â€Å"steals† memory cycles from processor, though processor originates most memory access. †¢ Block or Burst mode:- The of data without interruption †¢ Conflicts in DMA: – Processor and DMA, – Two DMA controllers, try to use the Bus at the same time to access the main memory DMA controller may given exclusive access to the main memory to transfer a block DMA and Interrupt Breakpoints During D i an I t Instruction Cycle ti C l Bus Arbitration †¢ Bus master: device that initiates data transfers on the bus. †¢ The next device can take control of the bus after the current master relinquishes control †¢ Bus Arbitration: process by which the next device to become master is selected †¢ Centralized and Distributed Arbitration BBSY P Processor r BR BG1 DMA controller 1 BG2 DMA controller 2 A simple arrangement for bus arbitration using a daisy chain BR (bus request ) line – open drain line – the signal on this line is a logical OR of the bus request from all the g q DMA devices – BG (bus grant) line – processor activates this line indicating (acknowledging) to all the DMA devices (connected in daisy chain fashion) that the BUS may be used when its free free. – BBSY (bus busy) line – open collector line – the current bus master i di b indicates d i devices that i i currently using h it is l i the bus by signaling this line BBSY Processor BR BG1 DMA controller 1 BG2 DMA controller 2 Sequence of signals during data transfer of bus mastership †¢ Centralized Arbitration – Separate unit (bus arbitration circuitry) connected to the bus – Processor is normally the bus master, unless it grants bus mastership to DMA For the timing/control, in previous slide: DMA controller 2 requests and acquires bus mastership and later releases the bus. During its tenure as the bus master, it may perform one or more data transfer operations, depending on whether it is p , p g operating in the cycle stealing or block mode. After it releases the bus, the processor resumes bus mastership. †¢ Distributed Arbitration – All devices waiting to use the bus has to carry out the arbitration process – no central arbiter – Each device on the bus is assigned with a identification number 4-bit – One or more devices request the bus by asserting q y g the start-arbitration signal and place their identification number on the four open collector lines – ARB0 through ARB3 are the four open collector lines – One among the four is selected using the code on the lines and one with the highest ID number A distributed arbitration scheme Assume that two devices, A and B, having ID numbers 5 and 6, respectively, are requesting the use of the bus. Device A transmits the pattern 0101, and device B transmits the pattern 0110. p The code seen by both devices is 0111. Each device compares the pattern on the arbitration lines to its own ID, starting from the most significant bit. If it detects a difference at any bit position, it disables its drivers at that bit position and for all lower-order bits. It does so by placing a 0 at the input of these drivers drivers. In the case of our example, device A detects a difference on line ARB I. Hence, it disables its drivers on diff li I H i di bl i d i lines ARB 1 and ARBO. This causes the pattern on the arbitration lines to change to 0110, which means that B has won the contention. Universal Serial Bus (USB) The USB supports two speeds of operation called lowoperation, low speed (1. 5 megabits/s) and full-speed (12 megabits/s). The Th most recent revision of the bus specification (USB i i f h b ifi i 2. 0) introduced a third speed of operation, called high-speed (480 megabits/s). The USB has been designed to meet several key objectives: -P Provide a simple, low-cost, and easy to use interconnection id i l l t d t i t ti system that overcomes the difficulties due to the limited number of I/O ports available on a computer – Accommodate a wide range of data transfer characteristics for I/O devices, including telephone and Internet connections / , g p – Enhance user convenience through a †plug-and-play† mode of operation USB Bandwidths: A low-speed rate of 1. 5 Mbit/s (~183 kB/s) is defined by USB 1. 0. It is intended primarily to save cost in lowbandwidth human interface devices (HID) such as keyboards, ( ) y , mice, and joysticks. The full-speed rate of 12 Mbit/s (~1. 43 MB/s) is the full speed ( 1. 43 basic USB data rate defined by USB 1. 1. All USB hubs support full-bandwidth. A high-speed (USB 2. 0) rate of 480 Mbit/s (~57 MB/s) was introduced in 2001. All hi-speed devices are capable of falling back to full bandwidth operation if necessary; they are full-bandwidth backward compatible. Connectors are identical. SuperSpeed ( d (USB 3. 0) rate produces upto 4800 Mbit/s ) d bi / (~572 MB/s or 5 Gbps) Each node of the tree has a device called a hub, which acts as an intermediate control point between the host and the I/0 devices devices. At the root of the tree, a root hub connects the entire tree to the host computer. The leaves of the tree are the I/0 p / devices being served. The tree structure enables many devices to be connected while using only simple point-topoint serial links. Each hub has a number of ports where devices may be connected, including other hubs. In normal operation, a hub g copies a message that it receives from its upstream connection to all its downstream ports. As A a result, a message sent b the host computer is lt t by th h t t i broadcast to all I/O devices, but only the addressed device will respond to that message. A message from an I/O device is sent only upstream towards the root of the tree and is not seen by other devices. Hence, th USB enables th h t t communicate with the I/O H the bl the host to i t ith th devices, but it does not enable these devices to communicate with each other. The USB operates strictly on the basis of polling. A device may send a message only in response to a poll message from the host host. Hence, upstream messages do not encounter conflicts or interfere with each other, as no two devices can send other messages at the same time. This restriction allows hubs to be simple, low-cost devices. USB protocol requires that a message transmitted on a highspeed link is always transmitted p y at high speed, even when the ultimate receiver is a low-speed device. device Hence, a message intended for device D is sent at high speed from the root hub to hub A, then A forwarded at low speed to device D. The latter transfer will take a long time, during which highl ti d i hi h hi h speed traffic to other nodes is allowed to continue. Each device on the USB, whether it is a hub or an I/O device, is assigned a 7-bit address. This address is local to the USB tree and is not related in any way to the addresses used on the processor bus. A hub may have any number of devices or other hubs connected to it, and addresses are assigned arbitrarily. When a device is first connected to a hub, or when it is powered on, it has the address 0. The hardware of the hub to which this device is connected is capable of detecting that the device has been connected, and it records this f d hi fact as part of i own status i f f its information. Periodically, the host polls each hub to collect status information and learn about new devices that may have been added or disconnected. When the host is informed that a new device has been connected, connected it uses a sequence of commands to send a reset signal on the corresponding hub port, read information from the device about its capabilities, send configuration information to the device, and assign the device a unique USB address. O d i d i th d i i dd Once this thi sequence is completed the device begins normal operation and responds only to the new address. Read about USB protocols Isochronous traffic on USB and USB FRAME How to cite Input/Output Organization, Essay examples

Men and Masculinities in International Perspective

Question: Discuss about the Men and Masculinities in International Perspective. Answer: Introduction: In the last half century, males have shown considerable strengths, as well as flexibility in the facade of substantial economic, social, in addition to cultural transformations in the Australian society (Richardson, 2004). Lifes situations may make it hard for men to undertake healthy options, as well as to access care plus data essential to attain finest health. Accessible research demonstrates that Australian men have life expectancy of 78.7 years while women at 83.7 years among the females. To address this challenge facing males the National Male Health Policy was developed in 2010 (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2008). The National Male Health Policy (NMHP) was launched in 2010 to promote the health of the males in Australia. The NMHP offers a structure for enhancing the health status of all men in Australia plus attaining equal health results for populace groups of men in danger of poor wellbeing. The policy is instrumental as it offers practical recommendations for action crafted to direct directions into a novel decade, particularly in fields confirmed to make a change in enhancing the health of men in Australia and those individuals with poor health. The policy was a result of the Australias government commitment in 2007 to develop the original NMHP in acknowledgment of the particular health challenges that were facing the Australian males. The commitment entailed consulting with males, health experts, governments, and community organizations (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2009). The commitment also involved looking at accessible proof and acknowledging that enhancing mens health needs, taki ng action on numerous spheres of males health. Furthermore, the outcome of the policy focused on engaging men regarding their health; educating males concerning avertable health challenges affecting them; improving the utilization of active health resources by men through lowering access bottlenecks, which target men with poorer health results. The NMHP has several supporting documents that include fact sheets on diverse aspects of male health, like healthy schedules in addition to reproductive behaviors, and clues for men themselves regarding health issues affecting them. In the policy, the term male health, is used all through the document, which demonstrates that the policy is about males of all ages in Australia. The policy is founded on the reality that early encounters may lay the basis for wellbeing results afterward in life, where high-quality health must start early in life. Additionally, being considered an adult may be at diverse ages of makes from diverse cultures, as well as ethical contexts (Ferguson, 2001). Decisively, for any policy to achieve the intended outcomes and to properly align resources to the acknowledged need, approaches should be informed by vigorous evidence. The important policy area is the attention towards building the male health evidence-base. The policy is crucial as it offers the needed infrastructure, which will permit researchers, fitness experts, in addition to policy-makers to better comprehend the effect of age and gender on behavior, attitudes plus results of health (White Holmes, 2006). Importance of the Policy The policy recognizes that the need to value, as well as support responsibilities played by men in the community, was widespread during the consultations at the initial stages of policy development. Males play a varied role and significant roles in Australia (Gideon Edward Elgar Publishing, 2016). Males in Australia as underscored by the policy make a noteworthy input to the community in paid work, with about 6 million men in paid employment in 2009. Therefore, enhanced health for males in Australia will not only have a constructive effect on people lives, but will too contribute to progress in involvement along with efficiency and considerable savings on health care services (Ring OBrien, 2007). The NMHP is an important policy towards the health of Australia in improving health equality between the males and females. The policy is great because it understands the health needs of the male population in Australian. The policy offers comprehensive, extensive and innovative document that advocates for a whole system towards benefited the health of males. The policy highlights the need to focus on prevention and the significance of supporting males through community development work (Veal Lynch, 2012). Importantly, the policy did not attempt to blame the male for their poor health status, but instead, embraced an understanding of masculinities and means males are socialized to behave (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2008). Furthermore, the policy has been seen as important because it adopts social determinants approach to defining males health. The policy claims that the males health position is rather than just a result of physiological, biological functioning; howe ver, that it is as well impacted by much wider social, economic, cultural, as well as environmental factors (Adams, 2006). The policy underscores the fact there is a growing appreciation that social along with economic elements, which include paucity, are primary determinants of the health status of males. Through acknowledging diversity in males as a population, the policy recognizes the right of all males in Australia to the best potential health, regardless of social and ethnic differences (Emslie, 2005). The policy played a leading role in seeking to support males to build on their strengths, as well as become more lively advocates of their healthiness. It seeks to set up more encouraging atmospheres and to fashion an improved atmosphere where to permit males to be better agents of their well-being. It is a prominent inconsistency that despite the males high-flying existence all through the ages at the heart of health policy, males have been noticeably quiet and mainly not reflective in articulating regarding their health issues. Thus, the policy promotes different initiatives tailored to support the males, in the constitutional, society, and charitable segments, to be stronger agents of their health (McMurray Clendon, 2011). Implementation and Compliance The NMHP acknowledges that gender has an important effect on health because both males and females have various health needs along with outcomes. The policy guides the planning and delivery of health services, as well as health promotion programs for males in Australia (World Health Organization, 2001). Under the policy, the Department of Health will: Promote along with monitor the implementation of the policy and offer advice to NMHP. Carry on to finance the policy initiatives to build a capacity of the NSW Health systems to promote the health of males. Identify research priorities for men through strengthening the policy and revise and review the policy every three years. Cost-host with NMHP a biannual health forum for men to review the progress and highlight best practice in the delivery of males health care (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2008). The National Male Health Policy Action Plan must: Nominate one sponsor for the NMHP from the National Male Health Policy Action Plan Executive Recommend one Aboriginals and one non-Indigneous wide males coordinator with the role of implementation of the policy and report directly to the appointed sponsor. Design a work plan to implement activities that will be undertaken under the policy plan. Establish and maintain the males health network to assist in the implementation of the plans initiatives and offer input into the service process. Provide a yearly report to the Department of Health that details the progress made in implementing the policy of 2010 (Ring OBrien, 2007). Conclusion It is clear that the National Male Health Policy is a milestone history not only to the benefit of males in Australia, but together with their families. The policy seeks to improve the health inequalities between males and females in Australia to ensure that all the males access better health care services (Baker, 2002). The policy ensures that health services are tailored plus managed by providers that will meet the needs of the males. The policy is a practical policy, which makes many recommendations geared towards improving male health. The policy acknowledges that improving the health of males is a pooled duty where the government, health experts, community organizations, and men should be inspired to take part. References Adams ,M .(2006). Raising the profile of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders mens health: An Indigenous mans perspective. Australian Aboriginal Studies, 2, pp.68?74. Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2009). Labour Force, Australia. 6202.0. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2008). Australias Health, 2008 cat. no. AUS 99, AIHW, Canberra. Baker, P. (2002). Getting It Sorted: A New Policy for Mens Health. London: Mens Health Forum. Emslie, C. (2005). Women, men and coronary heart disease: Review of the qualitative literature. Journal of Advanced Nursing. Vol. 51, No. 4, pp. 283-395. Ferguson, H. (2001). Men and masculinities in late-modern Ireland. In: Globalising Men: Men and masculinities in international perspective, B. Pease and K. Pringle (eds.). London: Zed Books, pp. 118-34. Gideon, J., Edward Elgar Publishing. (2016). Handbook on gender and health. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc. McEachan R, Lawton R, Jackson C, Connor M Lunt J. (2008). Evidence, theory and context: Using intervention mapping to develop a worksite physical activity intervention. BMC Public Health, 8:326. McMurray, A., Clendon, J. (2011). Community health and wellness: Primary health care in practice. Chatswood, N.S.W: Elsevier Australia. OECD (2003). Society at a glance. OECD Social Indicators 2002.Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Publications Service. Richardson, N. (2004). Getting Inside Mens Health. Kilkenny: Health Promotion Department, South-Eastern Health Board. Ring I.T OBrien J.F. (2007). Our hearts and minds what would it take for Australia to become the healthiest country in the world?. Medical Journal of Australia. 187(8), pp.860?865. Smith JA (2007). Beyond masculine stereotypes: Moving mens health promotion forward in Australia. Health Promotion Journal of Australia. 20?5, p.23. Veal, A. J., Lynch, R. (2012). Australian Leisure. Sydney: P.ED AUSTRALIA. White, A. Holmes, M. (2006). Patterns of mortality across 44 countries among men and women aged 15-44 years. The Journal of Mens Health and Gender. 3 (2): p. 139-51. World Health Organization. (2001). Madrid Statement: Mainstreaming Gender Equity in Health: The Need to Move Forward. WHO.

Cadbury free essay sample

Cadbury India Ltd. is a part of the Mondelez International group of companies and is in the business of creating a delicious world producing delectable chocolate confectionaries, gum and candy products, and popular beverages and foods that include many of Indias most popular and trusted food brands. Over the years they have won customers hearts and achieved a 70 percent market share in the chocolates category in India. Their flagship brand Cadbury Dairy Milk (CDM) is considered the Gold Standard for chocolates the pure taste of CDM defines the chocolate taste for the Indian consumer. Ranked fourth among Indias most admired companies by Fortune India, in 2012, Cadbury India is a part of Mondelez International (NASDAQ: MDLZ), the global snacking and food company and a spin-off from Kraft Foods Inc. Mondelez International is the worlds largest chocolatier, biscuit baker and candy maker, and the second-largest maker of gum. Cadbury India has been in India for over 60 years, having started in 1948 as an importer of chocolates. We will write a custom essay sample on Cadbury or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Their large community extends into Indias agricultural spaces. Since 1965, Cadbury has pioneered and enhanced the development of cocoa cultivation in India. For over two decades, they have worked with the Kerala Agricultural University to undertake cocoa research and improve cocoa yields. Headquartered in Mumbai, Cadbury India has sales offices in New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai and six manufacturing facilities at Thane, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Induri (Pune), Malanpur (Gwalior) and Baddi (Himachal Pradesh). Mission and Vision Statements of Cadbury India Mission: Cadbury’s mission statement says simply: ‘Cadbury means quality’; this is our promise. Our reputation is built upon quality; our commitment to continuous improvement will ensure that our promise is delivered’. Vision: Cadbury India has defined its vision as â€Å"Life full of Cadbury and Cadbury full of life† Marketing Strategy Segmentation, Targeting and Positioning Segmentation One notable form of customer segmentation that Cadbury utilizes is behavioural segmentation, which is based on actual customer decision-making processes towards Cadbury’s products. Once dividing these customers by that base, they target them by providing specific product offerings. The relevant segments are the following: The Break Segment, Impulse Segment and Take-home Segment. Break Segment This segment describes products which are normally consumed as a snatched break and often with tea or coffee. This would make up a part of a meal and usually will be used a form of dessert substitution. Some examples of products that cater to this would be the Dairy Milk range. Impulse Segment These products are most often purchased on impulse while consumers are walking buy or shopping for other household goods. They are strategically placed at eye-level or near the checkout counter so that consumers can make an unplanned purchase. Promotions are also often used to encourage consumers to purchase the chocolates. Both the Cadbury dairy milk block-size and bite-size could be purchased on impulse, depending on its packaging and its presentation. Take-home Segment This describes products that are normally purchased in supermarkets, taken home and consumed at a later stage due to its sheer quantity. Part of this segment is called the gift segment, where the consumers will take home a box of chocolates in the form of a gift for someone else. An example of this would be Cadbury’s large Dairy Milk blocks or the Cadbury Celebrations box. Targeting Unless markets are targeted with the product offerings, very few will buy the product. Therefore, Cadbury India has distinguished its product offerings to specific class of consumer groups. For example, Cadbury Temptations and Bourneville are meant for higher end consumer groups who are willing to pay more for the dark chocolates. More recently, Cadbury has introduced SILK as a product offering and targets anyone who can’t resist chocolate. Cadbury SILK is only another product item in the CDM product line. Positioning Positioning is defined as the way by which the marketers attempt to create a distinct impression in the customers mind. For kids, the word Cadbury’s is synonymous with chocolates; and the company’s many taglines resonate with the emotions of the people across segments. E. g. : â€Å"Kuch meetha ho jaye†, â€Å"the perfect expression of love†, etc. Marketing Mix PRODUCT The average company will compete for customer by conforming to his expectation consistently. But the winner will surpass them by constantly exceeding his expectation, delivering to his door step additional benefits which he would never have imagined. Cadbury’s offer such product. The wide variety products offered by the company include: Chocolate Confectionary Dairy Milk Fruit Nut 5 Star Break Perk Gems Eclairs Nutties Temptation Milk Treat Beverages Food Drinks Bourn vita Drinking chocolate Cocoa PRICE The strategy used by Cadbury’s is for matching the value that customer pays to buy the product with the expectation they have about what the production is worth to them. Cadbury’s has launched various products which cater to all customer segments. So every customer segment has different price expectation from the product. Therefore maximizing the returns involves identifying right price level for each segment, and then progressively moving through them. Dairy Milk: Rs. 15 Perk: Rs. 10 5 Star: Rs. 10 Friut and Nut: Rs. 22 Gems: Rs. 10 Break :Rs. 5 Nutties: Rs. 18 Bournvita (500 gm): Rs. 104 Drinking chocolate: Rs. 50 PLACE Cadbury’s distribution network has expanded from 1990 distributors last year to 2100 distributors and 4,50,000 retailers. Beside use of IT to improve logistics, Cadbury is also attempting to improve the distribution quality. To address the issue of product stability, it has installed visi colors at several outlets. This helps in maintaining consumption in summer when sales usually drops due to the fact that the heat affects product quality and thereby off takes. Looking at the low penetration of the chocolate, a distribution expansion would itself being incremental volume. The other reason is arch rival Nestle reaches more than a million retailers. This increase in distribution is going to be accompanied by reduction in channel costs. Cadbury’s marketing costs, at 18% of total costs, is much higher than Nestle’s 12% or even pure sugar confectionery major Parry’s 11%. The company is looking to reduce this parity level. At Cadbury, they believe that selling confectionery is it like selling soft drinks. PROMOTION Findings showed that the adults felt too conscious to be seen consuming a product actually meant for children. The strategic response addresses the emotional appeal of the brand to the child within the adult. Naturally, that produced just the value vacuum that Cadbury was looking to fill. Thereafter it was the job of the advertising to communicate customer the wonderful feeling that he could experience by re-discoursing the careful, unselfish conscious, pleasure – seeking child within him – and graft these feeling onto the Ad campaign like â€Å"Khane Walon Ko Khane Ka Bahana Chahiye† for CMD and â€Å"Thodi Si Pet Pooja – Kabhi Bhi Kahin Bhi† for Perk have been sure shot winner with the audience. Whirl with the new launched temptations with the slogan â€Å"Too Good to Share† the communication resolves around the reluctance of a person who’s got their hand on a bar of temptation to let anyone else to have a bite. As well as outdoor and radio ads, ad agencies have created communications for cinemas and even ATM machines for the brand. All ICICI’s ATM a message flashes on the screen as soon as customer inserts his ATM card. It tells the customer that this would be good time to get out of his temptation since he/she is bound to be alone. In cinemas, Cadbury has a message on-screen just before the lights are dimmed to give them a chance to get their temptations. Products like Eclairs has got potential for much wide distribution, e. g. : in small sweets that airlines, hostels, and up market retail outlet offer to guest and customers. Looking beyond traditional promotional channels, Cadbury’s has also entered promoting its products through the internet. Besides three company websites (i. e. www. cadburyindia. com, www. bournvita. com, www. cadburygift. com) that the company has launched, it has also entered into various marketing relationship with other portals, specially targeted during festivals and events such as Valentine’s Day, etc. Growth Strategy and Market Expansion Cadbury India has launched some of the very creative advertisements over the years, and these ads have been close to Indian ethos. For E. g. the ‘shubh aarambh’ Dairy Milk’s ad which relate to the Indian tradition of having some sweet before doing some important work or ‘kuch meetha ho jaye’ which associated Dairy Milk chocolates with celebratory occasions. Ads like ‘meethe mein kuch meetha ho jaye’ have got a lot of favour with the audience. These ads, in typical Cadbury style, are very heart-warming and creative. If we look through the years, we can clearly see that Cadbury is doing everything possible to maintain a strong hold on the Indian chocolate market. While it remains a dominant leader with over 70% of the market share, this has eroded over the years as competitors like Nestle, Amul and CAMPCO have made strong forays. There was a time before and during the early 90s when Cadbury’s enjoyed an even higher market share. This was the time when chocolates were very clearly positioned for children. However, with the entry of global giant Nestle, two things happened. Firstly, there was a sudden spurt of competition for Cadbury. But more importantly, the market began to grow at a faster pace. Cadbury seized this opportunity and started creating advertisements that were targeted towards the ‘kids in all of us’. This was a very smart move as they already had the children’s segment all tied up. Moreover, the children of the 90s have now grown up, and Cadbury still offers them reasons to eat Dairy Milk. Hence, while their market share has eroded by a few points, Cadbury has significantly improved its revenues in absolute terms by evolving a long term advertising plan and one that is very relevant to the Indian context. With predominantly Indian themes, special moments (remember the girl dancing on the cricket field) and soulful music, Cadbury has really managed to connect with the audience. The recent ‘meethe mein kuch meetha ho jaye’ campaign is simply a continuation of this strategy to expand the market. In conclusion, Cadbury Dairy Milk has managed to take a simple chocolate bar and create numerous associations with it over the years. It has built up different audiences over the years, and to every audience it offers a different meaning but one that is very relevant. Communication Strategy:- Cadbury was the one having 70 % market shares in chocolate industry. Out of which 30% was the Dairy Milk alone. This is because of constant re-invention of the brand bombarding communication towards the consumers consistently to maintain the top position in mind recall in confectionery segment. Dairy Milk was awarded as No. 1most trusted brand in Mumbai 2005 for the edition of Brand Equity’s most trusted Brand Survey. Dairy Milk targeted all the aspects as possible to get into the heart of all the people, ofall age groups. For this they communicated with people through different Ad’s Campaigns. Let us see few of them below: Khane walo KO Khane ka Bahana Chahiye Pappu Paas Ho Gaya Shubh Aarambh was one of successful campaigns of Dairy Milk. This means Auspicious Beginning. With this campaign they said that for whatever you start, start it with Dairy Milk and it will be successful. For this they chose the best to advertise: Amitabh Bacchhan. Marketing Channels Cadbury used different media options to communicate different campaigns and promote their products. They are: Outdoor, Television, Radio, Internet, TV Advertisements is the most popular method for Cadbury to show their new campaigns to people so that they can more and more relate it with their personal lives. They also have ground promotions in different malls. They arrange some contests also to promote their brand. Cadbury’s has also engaged the services of various celebrities including Amitabh Bachan, Preity Zinta, etc. to promote the brand. It has sponsors several events to expand its presence in markets/ areas where it has not penetrated deep enough. Competitor’s Analysis The main competitors in confectionery market are Nestle, Amul , ITC and Parle. Product Feature Nestle Amul Cadbury Market Position 2nd 3rd 1st No. of variants Many Few Many Gift Packs Yes No Yes Objective To be the world’s largest and best branded food manufacturer, whilst ensuring that the brand name Nestle is synonymous with products of the highest quality Confectioneries just happens to be a side business for Amul whose core competency lies in milk and milk products To grow the market for chocolate confectionery To increase share in the snacking sector Strategy Integrated cost leadership/differentiation Wide range of products Low cost of operators No differentiated strategy Growing the market by apt pricing strategy that will create a mass market and to have offerings in every category to widen the market Beside these, substitutes to Cadbury’s offerings include soft drink companies, ice cream companies, gift shops, etc both generic as well as branded. Marketing Environment Analysis Porters 5 forces Analysis: Cadbury free essay sample Cadbury started off in 1824 with 22 year old John Cadbury who opened his first shop in Birmingham, where he sold tea, coffee, mustard and a sideline of cocoa and drinking chocolate. In 1831, he then rented a small factory not far from his shop. He there became a manufacturer of drinking chocolate and cocoa, which set down the foundation for the Cadbury chocolate business. They then expanded and decided to build a factory in Tasmania, Australia. Since then Cadbury has continued expanding and merging with other companies for example, Kraft. In 1967, Cadbury bought MacRobertson Chocolates, which gave the company another major manufacturing base in Australia- Ringwood in Melbourne, Victoria. During 1969, Cadbury then merged with the well-known Australian brand Schweppes, which created the new name Cadbury Schweppes. Cadbury continued expanding when they acquired Red Tulip confectionary in the 1980s, which broadened their range of products especially for Easter specials. In 1995, Cadbury branched off into China and established a factory in the town of Beijing. We will write a custom essay sample on Cadbury or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page On 27th February 2009, Cadbury Schweppes Pty Ltd, the well-known confectionary and beverages business, formally separated and continued running as separate companies. Then in April of that year, Cadbury in Australia changed their name back to Cadbury Pty Ltd. A few years later in 2010, Cadbury Australia then became part of Kraft Foods. Who then later changed their name to Modelez International in the October of 2012. Level of Operations and Mechanism Cadbury are a multinational company and operate in many countries throughout the world. They are the second largest confectionary brand in the world. Their head office at the Cadbury House in London, England, and it occupies roughly 84,000 square feet inside the building. Flow Process Chart of Production of Chocolate: Research and Development In 2006, Cadbury opened up their first RD centre in Southeast Asia, seeking to drive growth in their market. In that year they spend $78 million dollars on RD expenses. Not long after that the in 2012, in Bournville a developmental kitchen and testing lab were built. This RD building will also be used for developing new products throughout Cadbury. In 2012, a lot of Cadbury’s RD money went into designing a chocolate bar that doesn’t melt even at 40-degree heat. This may coast a lot of money to research and have trial tastings, but when the outcome came good, they then opened up a whole new market to themselves as they could now sell chocolate in the warm-weather countries that lack the supply-chain infrastructure to deliver conventional chocolate to the market. Quality Assurance Cadbury monitor their production processes to ensure that all their products are produced with high quality and meet the needs of consumers needs. If they don’t view and meet consumer’s needs, the customer could loose interest if their demands are not met or acknowledged. To enforce all of this, Cadbury have supervisors who monitor the company’s machines, and also other workers and the products they are producing. Total quality management ensures that their products produce good taste to the consumer and are appealing. Also ensures that customer complaints are solved etc. Throughout the production and distribution of Cadbury chocolate (Flow chart) there are many critical control points, involving temperature and time. From the consistency of the mixture, to the temperatures when tempering and also transporting the molds, there are many times where Cadbury workers have to monitor and do regular sampling to ensure their consumers are getting the best quality and consistent chocolate bars by Cadbury. Consumer Influences Cadbury believe responding to their customer’s demands and requests will continue to keep them up in the top third of the confectionary market. Also bringing out new products and giving the consumers a variety to choose from will allow them to not get bored of Cadbury and continue to support them. Cadbury recently decreased the size of their chocolate bars but kept the same prices for all even though they lost 4 grams of chocolate as they brought out their new innovation of ‘curved bars’. But a year or so later they responded to consumers and increased it again by 10% due to all the feedback they were receiving. Impact on the Environment As one of Australia’s most loved brands, Cadbury are very committed to environmental sustainability. They have joined forces with the Red Group and Coles to recover and recycle plastic bags and their packaging to reduce the environmental impact of plastics. They have recently set up an idea of using the recycled packaging from The Natural Confectionary Company, Cadbury milk blocks, bars and share packages and other shopping bags and food packaging, and using it all to create furniture, which would then be donated to volunteer organisations in need. Between 2006-09, Cadbury took on a water efficient production process, which reduced their water consumption by 17%. In that time they also reduced their carbon emissions by 3%. Impact on the Economy In Australia, Cadbury own roughly 35% of the local confectionary market. Worldwide, Cadbury works around 35000 direct and indirect suppliers, to create their products and to ensure that all aspects of the business are running smoothly and to standard. As levels of production increased each year for Cadbury, they noticed their annual revenue was also showing significant increases. In 2008, Cadburys annual revenue was $985 million. Cadburys CEO, Todd Stitzer has an annual salary of $1,834,877, with added bonuses sometimes which boost his income up even more. In 2008, there was a strong growth in the markets for Cadbury in the Asia Pacific region. In New Zealand and Australia the revenue grew overall, which then increased competition for them. There was a good growth in all three of their categories, with chocolate being the biggest growth of 7%, candy was 5% and gum was 2%. This shows Cadbury’s dominance in the market and Australian Food Industry, which then overall increases both profits and working opportunities. A chocolate bar accounts for 42% of the total confectionary market, 26% is chocolate blocks, and 10% is boxed chocolates, which then roughly adds up to roughly two thirds of the confectionary market. For market growth to occur there needs to be population growth and competitive pricing. Consumer’s interests have to be constantly motivated which will increase sales growth in the Australian Food Industry. A wide range of confectionary is regularly imported into Australia at 5% tariff rate, and around 1999-2000 confectionary imports were as high as $213 million. Cadbury is one of the highest suppliers in Australia being 35% of the market share, making them a dominant supplier. Ingredients are imported to Australia, and then Cadbury Australia export to Singapore and the Philippines. Impact on Society Cadbury recognise and take responsibility that what is does as a business impacts on both communities and the lives of their consumers. They tend take their corporate and social responsibility seriously. Cadbury have said they offer their employees nothing but respect and cared for their welfare. Cadbury offer jobs to people all over the world and have roughly 110,000 employs working throughout the many factories they have. As a business Cadbury believe in respecting human rights and trading ethically in the way they work, not just within their little operations but also how they interact with the wider value chain. Good ethics and good business go together naturally to produce the best long-term effects for their workers and also consumers. Career Opportunities and Working Conditions Modelez are a global team of 110,000 colleagues working in 165 countries. They help create and grow some of the world’s most iconic brands such as Cadbury and Oreo biscuits. They’re a big company and every colleague maters to them. Each and every one of them have the chance to make a mark and be recognised. But Cadbury by themselves is a major global confectionary company who employ 50,000 staff worldwide. They value their people and believe in inspiring each other to achieve greater things, and making the most of ones capabilities. Cadbury offer careers across a broad range of professional fields and cater for learning and the development of skills people have to advance in their careers with them. Career opportunities include within Cadbury: Sales (including Territory Managers and Merchandisers) Supply Chain Finance Commercial/Marketing Science and Technology Payroll Administrative Human Resources Information Technology Legal Field Manager

Reaction Paper on “Immortality on Ice” Essays

Reaction Paper on â€Å"Immortality on Ice† Essays Reaction Paper on â€Å"Immortality on Ice† Essay Reaction Paper on â€Å"Immortality on Ice† Essay The movie that we watched was about reviving a person from the dead. This is said to be done in the future but they had already started researching how to use ice as a power to revive a clinically dead person. They used ice as a method to preserve a body and now they are planning on how to revive a person through the use of nanotechnology that can repair all the cells that were ruptured n the freezing process. The technology that they were referring in the movie is called Cryonics. This Cryonics would enable a man to prolong his life and at the same time be able to revive himself in certain conditions. As a technology, it also has technological system which various aspects. The first aspect is the techniques or human activity-form. In the Cryonics, it was seen on how people preserved a dead body. In Egypt, the dead people were mummified and preserved in order to reach the second life. In Cryonics, they also want to follow this ritual or activity. They want to preserved a dead body in order to revive it and not for the preparation of the afterlife. With this technology, they can prolong the life of a person or they can make people â€Å"immortal†. The technique that they will use in technology is the power of ice to preserve a dead body. Their example is a frog that was frozen to dead and was still able to revive itself when the ice melted. The second aspect of the technological system is resources, tools, or materials. In studying Cryonics and to further develop its technology, they are using dead bodies that are stored in a freezing apparatus that has liquid nitrogen to preserve a body. All the tools that they will be using are located in their laboratories. Their tools and apparatus would enable them to further study and analyze their research on how to revive a frozen dead body. The third aspect is the technological products and artifacts. In the technological system, the products that were created by different techniques were called artifacts. This can also serve as resources in some technological process. The artifacts in the Cryonics are the new life or the prolonged life that would be possessed by a human when he undergoes the technological techniques that were used in Cryonics. Although there is still o artifacts produced to the lack of technological advancement on the field but they said that in the future this technology would be present. Right now, they are piling dead bodies to be preserved so that in future they would be revived again. The fourth aspect pertains to the ends, function or valence of the technology. Man always seeks on how he can prolong his life here on earth. The function of this technology is basically to pro long and enhance the life of man and to be able to extend the limitation to another level. With this, the desire and needs of man to be â€Å"immortal† could be attained. To be with your love one forever and to defy the death are of the function of this technology. The fifth aspect is the factual knowledge. This pertains on how the technology will work and how it operates. In the Cryonics, they made use of the other organisms of animal that are capable of reviving itself after being frozen. When the body was frozen, it stops all cellular action and in turn the body was clinically dead but some animals like the frog has the capability to reanimate itself after beng frozen the has an innate mechanism that allow them to do that. In humans, we are not capable of that that why the cryonbiologists are still searching a way to be able to know how to resurrect and frozen body. With this, it plays a role in the further development of the technology. The last aspect is the social context or organization in which technologists are developed, distributed and employed. This pertains to the division of labor, where each has different task but has similar goal and same accomplishment and that is to be able to enhance the life of humans. In the institute, where Cryonics were conducted, it is composed of different people with different fields. There are programmer, cryontechnicians, cryonbiologists, engineers and many more. All of the make-up a institution that is will make â€Å"immortality of ice possible†. All of these people have different specializations but they all contribute make the technology that would enable to revived a frozen body possible. The technology is made due to interaction of different fields and this is the most important aspect of technology. Without the help of other fields the technology would not advance. In the movie, the dynamic relationship of science and technology on Cryonics is that the technology is dependent on the science. This is based on my understanding and based on what I saw in the movie. The technology that would enable to reanimate a frozen dead body in not yet feasible in the present. Although science and technology are independent the technology to revive a frozen body is still dependent to science. Without proper knowledge on how to fix all the ruptured cells on frozen body, the techniques and technology would not be able to advance. The people in the institute admit to themselves that in the present there will not be able to resurrect the frozen bodies. But they said that in the future, together with the advancement on technology, they would be able to reanimate a frozen dead body. They still need to gather more knowledge and expand research on nanotechnology to be able to make a technology that can revive a person or enhance its quality of life by extending it to the normal life expectancy of man. All they were doing today are series of research and experiment to further developed the technology they had today. I am not saying that the technology is always dependent on the science. Science and technology are mutually interdependence. The science shows the principle on technology will work and in return the technology helps the science to advance itself. An example of this is Microbiology. Without the invention of microscope, the field Microbiology, Cytology and Genetics will not be born. And absent in the advancement of either one of this will result in stagnation of the other. With the advancement of this technology, there are ethical issues that would arise from the technological system. First kind of ethical problem is the questions about how ethical values and norms apply n new technological context. This can be seen in the arising of moral concerns against the church. Reanimating a dead person defies the presence of a God, who has the power to give and take the lives of the person according to church. It also defies the law of nature. Reanimating of a dead is a mortal sin for the religious sects. This is the main ethical issue that would arise when the technology would be completed. Another kind of ethical issue that would arise is the questions concerning distributive justice and equality. With the advancement of technology in Cryonics, only a group or a class of people would benefit from this technology. Only the rich, elite and powerful will have an easy access on this technology. Since the technique would surely be expensive, not all people will be able to be brought back to life once they had died. Not all people will have equal chances to have a so called â€Å"immortal† life. Due to limited sources and facilities of the technology and the massive population of the human, only the powerful, rich and elite people would have the advantages on the technology. Thus, the questions on social justice and equality would arise due to technological innovation. The last kind of ethical issue that would arise is the question about the technology’s power to create dramatic changes. With the advancement in Cryonics and if the technology that can enhance the life of human to become â€Å"immortal† would be realistic then it would cause a greater problem to ourselves and the environment. Together with the enhancement of life, there would be decrease in the death rate of the humans. This would imply a more rapid growth in the population of the humans. With the increasing number of people and limited resources, there would be competition among people and other creatures. This would lead to an ecological imbalance. This advancement of technology would alter the world by destroying the environment to have a shelter, extinction of other organisms due to lack of habitat, and arising of wars due to completion on natural resources. Together with the advancement n technology, we the people who created it should also have limitation on what kind of technology we are making. Technology s a double edge sword that is both beneficial and detrimental at the same time. It is up to the people on how the will make used of the technology. We should not only look on the benefit we get on the technology but we should also think the consequences before it become too late to fix the problems brought by technological advancement.

Analyse a text connected with your degree subject (which is Film and Essay

Analyse a text connected with your degree subject (which is Film and TV Studies) by applying the ideas of Marx and Althusser - Essay Example what Marx has said about History in his book The holy family, or Critique of critical criticism (1844), Generic thinks it should be understood that â€Å"cinema doesnt make itself, cinema isnt made for itself, cinema is made by and for us. Films relation to the mass becomes a question of how to understand its situation as a medium capable of reaching many millions of people, potentially disparate in place and time.† (Generic. 2006). In today’s world, cinema is still one of the most influential medium to reach a large mass of people across the world. All the social, political, cultural and ideological issues which have, or could have created raves in the history of human beings are dealt from a common or unusual perspective in cinema. A section of people use this medium to express their ideas and beliefs on a particular topic which sometimes collide with the established school of thoughts, and sometimes greatly accepted. The underlying discussion on the above-mentioned b ook focuses specifically on the aspect of feminism in line with the perceptions of Karl Marx and Louis Althusser. Marx’s ideology of history being the struggle between classes is also applicable in the history of feminism. Women as a dominated class have struggled for identity and existence against the male class. They have fought for their freedom from patriarchal control, for their rights and privileges as independent human beings. Women have evolved through slavery to primitive communism- a term supposed to have introduced by Marx to indicate rights of an individual to basic resources and freedom from authoritarian rule and hierarchical social structure. The Marxist theory of feminism focuses on shattering of capitalism in order to emancipate women. The capitalist society, which largely values personal assets to demarcate the social position of an individual, is at the base of women’s oppression, according to Marxist feminism. Marx and Engel analyses that if the capitalist society, which

Analysis of Letter to the American people Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Analysis of Letter to the American people - Essay Example to dissolve in religious frenzy that prompts him to submit: â€Å"(Q2) As for the second question that we (bin Laden) want to answer: What are we calling you to, and what do we want from you? (1) The first thing that we are calling you to is Islam. (Letter). Thus bin Laden is merely a religious salesman and because of this does not possess the credibility to speak for the Islamic world regarding other issues. Firstly, the charges he levels against US support of Israel seem vacant in light of certain realities. He accuses us, saying, â€Å"As for the first question: Why are we fighting and opposing you? The answer is very simple: (1) Because you attacked us and continue to attack us... You attacked us in Palestine.† (Letter) Of course by this he means through our support of Israel, Palestinians have suffered. Or does he? Many critics point out that al Qaeda has been conspicuously absent from any efforts to help the Palestinians in any way other than vocal support for suicide bombers, the satisfaction of which is reflected in his statement... "Think not of those who are killed in the way of Allah as dead. Nay, they are alive with their Lord, and they are being provided for. They rejoice in what Allah has bestowed upon them from His bounty and rejoice for the sake of those who have not yet joined them, but are left behind (not yet martyred) that on them no fear shall come, nor shall they grieve. They rejoice in a grace and a bounty from Allah, and that Allah will not waste the reward of the believers." [Quran 3:169-171] (Letter) He attempts to prove a point, and it’s a religious one having nothing to do with the Palestinians securing their own state—a position forwarded by many American diplomats over the years and just recently given as a stated goal of the Obama administration. This goal, as it appears at the moment, comes over the objections of the new Israeli leadership. â€Å"...you attacked us in Palestine,† is a clear effort to connect the Palestinians with

How democracy caused the fall of athens greece Essay

How democracy caused the fall of athens greece - Essay Example The general standard of living became better, the poor earning more than before. The equality of rights for all, regardless of their class, was introduced. Later, great pieces of art and literature were produced. That period is called the ‘Golden Age’ of Athens. The people enjoyed being the ones helping out in creating new laws. The head went through their suggestions, so the city was ruled keeping everybody’s thoughts and wants in mind. The Athenians seemed to be happy in the way their city was governed. Several years later though, questions were raised and arguments arose regarding the democratic system. Greece produced many philosophers which are famous now like Socrates, his pupil Plato and Aristotle. They were great thinkers and had their own theories concerning the ruling of their city. Their questions and thoughts led to the rest of the general public raise their own queries until there was a general unrest. Nothing quite major, but the seeds of uncertainty were laid and one could easily imagine what the future could entail. There were several rulers who governed the state, Perciles being the most loved and greatest. But after his death, Athens did not remain to its former glory and that was partially due to the decision made by him whilst he was alive. Athens and Sparta were both powerful cities and great competitors. When the latter saw

Strategic flexibility in interpersonal relationships.

Strategic flexibility in interpersonal relationships. REFLECTIVE PAPER How many times have you heard someone say something like this: â€Å"he just doesnt understand me† or â€Å"there has been a breakdown in communications between us†? Lack of good communication between people is a constant problem. As the author, Richard, points out in the first chapter, â€Å"The Communication Process†, communication skills are crucial to both getting the best out of people and extricating oneself from difficult situations. Nowhere is this more evident than in the personal relationships we form with family and friends. The author introduces the idea of â€Å"Strategic Flexibility† (SF), which means that a person uses every communication tool he has in order to effectively get his point across in a given situation. SF is not limited to words but expands into a whole â€Å"communication repertoire† that can include gestures, expressions, body language and tone of voice. SF is characteristic of people who are successful not only in their professions but in their personal relationships as well. The authors description of SF has six steps: anticipate circumstances; assess the factors and conditions you find yourself in; evaluate the current situation in relation to your own abilities; select the most relevant communication skills you possess; apply the first 4 steps carefully; and reassess your communication after receiving feedback. Finally, creativity is also key to communicating effectively as it allows the speaker flexibility and adaptability. In applying this model to my own life, I began to consider some of my friendships and how they have either been strengthened or weakened because of a certain style of communication between us. Some years ago I had a friend I became quite close with very quickly called Julia. She was exuberant, funny and full of drama. We not only worked together but also went to bars together, out dancing, to comedy clubs and generally palled around. Hanging out with her was full of extreme ups and downs. At one point, Julia was having a great deal of trouble getting what she needed from her immediate supervisor, Rob. Rob and I were also friends. Julias frustration with Rob and Robs frustration with Julia was beginning to affect everyone else who worked with them. I offered to speak to Rob alone on Julias behalf, thinking that hearing some of her complaints and concerns from a third party might make Rob more receptive after all, he and I got along smoothly. I took Rob out for a drink and noticed immediately how uncomfortable he was. His body language said it all he found it hard to make eye contact, was hunched over in a corner of the table and smiled nervously from time to time. He really did not want to hear any of what I had to say. I had an idea in my head of the role I wanted to play with Rob. I planned to be firm and reasonable and to avoid raising my voice or showing anything but understanding that the dynamic between him and Julia was problematic. But I thought that I could help fix it if only I could get Rob to agree to have more regular and business-like meeting with Julia where they could discuss their issues and, with luck, sort them out effectively. But what wound up happening is that although I kept my voice even, all I did was put Rob on the defensive. I never really asked him for his side of the story and just assumed that everything Julia told me was the way things really were. I had arrived with this assumption because I knew others had occasionally found Rob difficult to communicate with. He could be a bit dry and sarcastic. But he was also very driven and good at his job, which was quite demanding in a number of ways. It did not occur to me to ask him how the pressures of his job and his frustra tions with Julias work style might be affecting the outcome of the department he headed. Needless to say, nothing came out of this meeting with Rob. As I spent more time around Julia, it became obvious to me that her way of dealing with problems was to give way to emotional outbursts rather than find a clam and thought-out way of telling people including Rob and, by then me what was troubling her. I myself made the mistake of confiding in Julia at a time when I was feeling very vulnerable and she wound up throwing back what I had told her in my face. I started to learn at that moment that being more careful about how and with whom I communicated with would have a direct effect on my happiness in both my work and personal life. The way to communicate with someone who tends towards being emotional is not to meet it with the same level of emotion but rather to step back and try to diffuse the situation by giving the person a chance to vent and then thinking before responding. This way, there is a better chance that ideas can flow peacefully between the parties. I am also much more receptive to body language now. If I was trying to speak to someone who was hunched over and not meeting my eyes, I would know immediately that the style of communication I was using was making the other person uncomfortable. Using the SF tools, I would try to be more mindful of the sender-receiver mode the author writes about. I did not receive messages properly or chose to ignore them, acting only as a sender. This one-sided communication style was probably the reason my attempt at peacemaker failed. My nonverbal communication was equally lacking. I could have made Rob more at ease by leaning back in my seat instead of leaning forward as if ready to attack. I could also have given him a reassuring tap on the arm or shoulder to indicate friendship and empathy. I did not listen to the indirect feedback Rob was giving me. I did not respond to his obvious discomfort nor did I really give him a fair hearing. I think choosing a bar was not a bad idea as it was a neutr al zone for both of us, but selecting a quieter bar than the one we went to also would have been a better choice, as it is hard to stay focused when people are playing pinball next to you! By ignoring Robs side of the situation and not doing much to make him feel he was not under attack, I also did not apply the ethical standards the author outlines, such as treating opposing views with respect. I do make a concerted effort to apply many of the standards of ethical communication in my relationships now. 2. Perception Self-perception, as well as perceiving the needs of others, plays a vital role in effective communication, an idea that is discussed at length in the second chapter, â€Å"Self, Perception and Communication.† The relationship between self-image and perception of both self and of others is immensely complicated. Low self-esteem can feed into other peoples perceptions of a person through signals in their body language, tone of voice and facial expressions. These in turn, can reinforce negative self-image when other people respond to the negative signals they are receiving and send them back again to the initial communicant. Stepping outside ones comfort zone by engaging in â€Å"risk-taking† can create a fundamental threat to self-identity. As the author points out, â€Å"to take that action, or have that experience, would so violate who you are that, should you do it, you would no longer be the same person. You would be forced to see yourself as someone different.† Yet this very act of questioning identity can be enormously empowering. I grew up a fairly withdrawn child. I did not relate well to my peer group and was always more comfortable around adults or animals. I was afraid of judgment, or being teased. My grandmother had me outfitted at an expensive department store twice a year, which just created a further separation between my peers, whose parents tended to shop at Sears and local shops on an as-needed basis and me. My clothing communicated that I thought I was better than everyone else even though that image could not have been further from the truth. The author points out that â€Å"Social comparisons are pivotal to self-evaluations. They depend less on objective circumstances than on how you judge yourself in relation to others on particular attributes.† This was certainly true of my school days. Because of my distance from and fear of my classmates, I retreated into the library during most recess periods. My bookish behavior again reinforced that I was different. The fact that I did not voluntarily engage with my classmates on the playground even though a big part of me wanted to made me even more of a target for teasing. In short, every method of communication I was using, from my clothing, haircut, behavior and choice of pastimes communicated that I was a snob, even though my self-esteem was shaky and all I really wanted was to fit in. As I grew up and realized the value of a certain level of conformity, my fortunes shifted. I started to dress in the same brand jeans as the cool girls, wore the same style of shoes and makeup and made sure my hair was cut in one of the latest fashion trends. These changes told my peers that I was becoming like them. They started to treat me as a friend. Even so, I always felt a need to stand apart from the pack, to be noticed. The solution turned out to be through acting. I took up theater classes, dance and singing and performed in school plays. By pretending to be someone else on stage, I could feed that need for to be someone different while still being one of the gang. I could take risks as another persona that I could not take in my real life. After many years, I am still learning how to read people better instead of assuming they think the worst of me automatically. I have found that it is important to try to read people, to try to understand their own self-perceptions and the way they view their environment. These observations act as the feedback mentioned in the SF description. In this way, I can better react to what people are actually saying to me (rather than acting out of irrational fears) and adjust my own body language, word choice, even my dress in order to establish a rapport. This becomes very important in interviews and work situations. I have had jobs where my employer was excellent at communication and somewhere the communication was lacking. In the case of the former, I once worked for a professor who was very good at giving me work that matched my level of competence but that also helped stretch my skills set. When he gave criticism, it was also in a gentle tone of voice. He used words that were not judgmental but instead focused on showing me how I could improve my work with a few adjustments or a change of direction. An important quality Jeff had was that he was also always willing to listen to my ideas, help me develop them and would give me credit for work that was uniquely mine. Jeff was a great example of someone who had the SF concepts down pat and used them every day in his dealings with staff. Jeffs method of communication was a pivotal experience in my work life. It helped build my sense of ability and encouraged me to think for myself. Because Jeff was such a supportive boss, I also worked harder to please him and took greater pride in producing quality work. I began to learn how to argue a point effectively, and without becoming emotional. I did this by consciously separating my ideas for the project at hand from things I had been told as a child. I forced myself to listen to criticism because it was given in a gentle and well-intentioned way. Jeffs style was one of the stepping-stones in transforming not only my perceptions about my own abilities but my ability to learn and grow in a job. 3. Listening Listening is also a skill upon which I have improved, even though this has required a good deal of effort. True listening means often having to force yourself not to react, at least not immediately. Listening requires more than simply hearing what another person is saying. It involves paying attention to the use of words, body language and expressions, and also trying to put yourself in the shoes of the person speaking. The more you make an effort to understand the perspective from which they are communicating, the more I feel you are truly listening. I have found this to be especially true with family. Often, there is a lot of emotional baggage we carry around from the things our parents and siblings said to us when we were very young, a point the author makes repeatedly. The author likens our self-perception to a map: â€Å"What this means for you is simply that your perception of reality is not reality itself, but it is your own version of it—your â€Å"maps.† But these maps are not necessarily complete pictures of who we are, or of who we are capable of becoming, just like a road map does not necessarily show every tree, brook and signpost on a route. You can always use a different map or a different route to get to the same, or even a different, place. Again, the idea of flexibility in the SF concepts applies, since taking a different road can make for a pleasanter journey. This also means, however, that no two people are working from exactly the same map. Listening is therefore crucial to being able to find your way along another persons route. Keeping in mind that the way one sees the world or a particular problem may not be the same as the person you are conversing with. Preconceived notions or â€Å"perceptual filters†, as the author refers to them, can keep people from actually listening to each other. It is therefore important to try to keep both the mind as well as the ears open in order to foster communication. Conversely, shared experiences, where they arise, can also cement relationships. My siblings and I share many of the same experiences but have very different perspectives about them. I have learned a good deal about who they are as people by listening to them expand their views, and it has also influenced how I now see myself in relationship to them and our parents. Only by taking the time to listen can you find those synergies wi th other people and develop healthy and productive communication.